Evaluation of several measures of canopy openness as predictors of photosynthetic photon flux density in deeply shaded conifer-dominated forest understory

Earth & Environmental Sciences

• photon flux density 100%
• understory 70%
• coniferous tree 68%
• canopy 54%
• foliage 25%
• photography 16%
• photograph 14%
• sensor 10%
• method 4%

Agriculture & Biology

• coniferous forests 71%
• photons 68%
• understory 67%
• canopy 53%
• photography 18%
• photographs 14%
• leaves 9%
• plant adaptation 8%
• methodology 8%
• rapid methods 7%
• shade 6%